D

Another common type of reasoning is the search for causes and results.We want to know whether cigarettes really do cause lung cancer, what causes malnutrition, the decay of cities, or the decay of teeth.We are equally interested in effects: what is the effect of sulphur or lead in the atmosphere, of oil spills and raw sewage in rivers and the sea, of staying up late on the night before an examination?

Causal reasoning may go from cause to effect or from effect to cause.Either way, we reason from what we know to what we want to find out.Sometimes we reason from an effect to a cause and then on to another effect.Thus, if we reason that because the lights have gone out, the refrigerator won't work, we first relate the effect (lights out) to the cause (power off) and then relate that cause to another effect (refrigerator not working).This kind of reasoning is called, for short, effect to effect.It is quite common to reason through an extensive chain of causal relations.When the lights go out we might reason in the following causal chain: lights out—power off—refrigerator not working—temperature will rise—milk will sour.In other words, we diagnose a succession of effects from the power failure, each becoming the cause of the next.

Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory.A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion(燃烧) is necessary to drive a gasoline engine.A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided, though there may be more than one sufficient cause; a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs or an empty gas tank will have the same effect.A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors — pedestrians or other cars at the crossroads — must also be present.

In establishing or refuting(驳斥) a causal relation it is usually necessary to show the process by which the alleged (声称的) cause produces the effect.Such an explanation is called a causal process.

67.What the author discussed in the previous section is most probably about_______.

A.relationships between causes and results B.classification of reasoning

C.some other common types of reasoning D.some special type of reasoning

68.According to the passage, to do the "effect to effect" reasoning is to reason_______.

A.from cause to effect B.from effect to cause

C.from effect to effect and on to cause D.from effect to cause and on to another effect

69.A necessary cause is____________.

A.one without which it is impossible for the effect to occur

B.one of the causes that can produce the effect

C.one that is enough to make the effect occur D.none of them

70.Your refrigerator is not working and you have found that the electric power has been cut off. The power failure is a______________

A.necessary cause B.sufficient cause C.contributory cause D.none of them

第二节：(共5小题;每小题2分，共10分)

One thinks of princes and presidents as some of the most powerful people in the world; however, governments, elected or otherwise, sometimes have had to struggle with the financial powerhouses called tycoons. ____________71___________ It is Chinese in origin but was given as a title to some Japanese generals. The term was brought to the United States, in the late nineteenth century, where it eventually was used to refer to magnates(巨头; 大资本家) who acquired immense fortunes from sugar and cattle, coal and oil, rubber and steel, and railroads. Some people called these tycoons “capitals of industry” and praised them for their contributions to U.S. wealth and international stature. ____________72___________

The early tycoons built successful businesses, often taking over smaller companies to eliminate competition. ____________73___________. Monopolies made a few families very wealthy, but they also placed a heavy financial burden on consumers and the economy at large.

As the country expanded and railroads linked the East Coast to the West Coast, local monopolies turned into national corporations called trusts. A trust is a group of companies that join together under the control of a board of trustees. Railroad trusts are an excellent example. Railroads were privately owned and operated and often monopolized various routes, setting rates as high as they desired. The financial burden this placed on passengers and businesses increased when railroads formed trusts. Farmers, for example, had no choice but to pay, as railroads were the only means they could use to get their grain to buyers. _________74___________

____________75___________In 1890 Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust. Act, legislation aimed at breaking the power of such trusts. The Sherman Antitrust Act focused on two main issues. First of all, it made illegal any effort to interfere with the normal conduct of interstate trade. It also made it illegal to monopolize any part of business that operates across state lines.

Over the next 60 y ears or so, Congress enacted other antitrust laws in an effort to encourage competition and restrict the power of larger corporations.

A. A single company that came to control an entire market was called a monopoly

B. It is considered rewarding to accumulate capitals by establishing trusts.

C. Over-charged freight rates put some farmers out of business.

D. Popular American business tycoons are Rockefeller, Buffett, Carnegie etc.

E. Others criticized them as cruel “robber barons”, who would stop at nothing in pursuit of personal wealth.

F. There were even accusations that the trusts controlled government itself by buying votes and manipulating elected officials.

G. The word tycoon is relatively new to the English language.